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G-protein–coupled receptors (GPCRs) are a superfamily of more than 1000 membrane proteins that respond to a wide spectrum of extracellular signals, modulating various physiopathological processes.1,2 Several GPCRs, such as adrenergic, angiotensin, endothelin, and adenosine receptors, are expressed in cardiovascular (CV) tissues to maintain CV homeostasis. Importantly, GPCR-mediated adrenergic deregulation has been shown to both cause and contribute to the onset and progression of major CV diseases ultimately leading to heart failure (HF). Thus, GPCRs have become salient targets of current pharmacotherapy in CV disorders, and in past decades, many efforts have been made to better clarify their role in the pathophysiology of cardiac disease, focusing not only on receptor functions but also on postreceptor components that mediate or regulate their responses. Among the latter, a relevant role has been attributed to G-protein–coupled receptor kinases (GRKs). In this review, we focus on GRK2, the most abundant and versatile GRK expressed on CV system, tracing the way from initial experimental evidence to more recent data suggesting a potential role for this kinase in the clinical management of HF.1,2### GPCR Signaling and GRK Functions: Pathophysiological BackgroundOn stimulation, GPCRs interact with heterotrimeric G proteins, which in turn dissociate into 2 functional monomers, namely Gα and Gβγ, both of which modulate different effector systems. Agonist binding to GPCR promotes the activation of complex regulatory mechanisms to protect the receptor from both acute and chronic stimulation, a process termed desensitization. As extensively described, GPCR desensitization involves 3 main events in chronological order: receptor phosphorylation and uncoupling from G proteins, internalization of membrane-bound receptors, and downregulation through reduced mRNA and protein synthesis or increased degradation of internalized receptors.1,2The desensitization process is mediated by 3 families of proteins: second-messenger–dependent protein kinases, GRKs and arrestins. The defining feature of GRKs is that …

circulation. heart failure

Targeting the β-Adrenergic Receptor System Through G-Protein–Coupled Receptor Kinase 2: A New Paradigm for Therapy and Prognostic Evaluation in Heart Failure