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Inflammation and pain are devastating conditions characterizing many diseases. Their manifestation ranges from mild body discomfort, to a debilitating experience, which may culminate in organ failure or death. In conventional medicine, corticosteroids, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, opioids, and adjuvants are utilized to manage symptoms related to pain and inflammation. Despite their reported successes, these agents are only palliative, debatably inaccessible, unaffordable, and cause many undesirable side effects. As a result, the search for alternative and complementary therapies is warranted. Medicinal plants have been intensively utilized by humans for a long time to treat various ailments. In spite of their reported efficacies, empirical scientific data supporting their healing claims is scanty.  P. thonningii  (Schumach.) has been used in African traditional medicine, especially by traditional herbalists in Nigeria and Kenya, to treat conditions associated with inflammation. Even though analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and toxicity studies have been performed on leaf extracts, and some of their isolated compounds in Nigeria, there is scanty data supporting the use of stem bark extracts, which are commonly utilized in Kenya for pain, and inflammation management. Moreover, scientific data regarding safety and toxicity of the stem bark extracts of  P. thonningii  utilized in Kenya by traditional herbalists are inadequate. Based on this background, acute oral toxicity evaluation of the aqueous and methanolic stem bark extracts of  P. thonningii , in Swiss albino mice, was performed according to the OECD/OCDE (2008) guidelines. Anti-inflammatory activities were investigated using the xylene-induced ear oedema in mice, whereas analgesic activities were examined following the acetic acid-induced writhing technique. The acute oral toxicity data was analyzed, and interpreted according to the OECDE (2008) guidelines. Anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities data were tabulated on MS Excel, and exported to GraphPad Prism (v8.3). Descriptive statistics were computed, and expressed as mean ± SEM. Thereafter, One-Way ANOVA followed by Tukey's test was performed.  p  < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. All the studied plant extracts had LD 50  values > 2000 mg/kg bw, and were hence deemed to be nontoxic according to OECD/OCDE document no. 425. The results showed that the acetic acid-induced writhing frequency in mice administered the aqueous stem bark extract of  P. thonningii , at a dose of 500 mg/kg bw, was not significantly different from that recorded for mice which received the reference drug (acetylsalicylic acid 75 mg) ( p  > 0.05). Additionally, at all the studied extract doses, significantly lower acetic acid-induced writhing frequencies were recorded in mice that received the aqueous stem bark extract of  P. thonningii , compared with the writhing frequencies in mice that received the methanolic extract of the same plant ( p  < 0.05). On the other hand, the aqueous stem bark extract of  P. thonningii,  at doses of 100 mg/kg bw and 500 mg/kg bw, and the methanolic stem bark extract of the same plant, at a dose level of 500 mg/kg bw, exhibited significantly higher percentage inhibitions of xylene-induced oedema than the percentage inhibitions shown by the reference drug (dexamethasone 1 mg/kg bw) ( p  < 0.05). Generally, the aqueous stem bark extract of  P. thonningii , at all the studied dose levels, caused significantly higher inhibitions of xylene-induced ear oedema in mice, compared with the percentage inhibitions shown by methanolic stem bark ( p  < 0.05). Therefore, the aqueous, and methanolic stem bark extracts of  P. thonningii , grown in Kenya, possess peripheral analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities in Swiss albino mice. Hence, they have a potential of offering safe analgesic, and anti-inflammatory compounds. Further studies aimed at isolating, elucidating, and characterizing bioactive components from the studied extracts are recommended. Moreover, specific mode(s) through which these extracts exert the reported bioactivities should be established. Further toxicological investigations involving the studied plant extracts are encouraged to fully establish their safety.

evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine

Acute Oral Toxicity and Anti-inflammatory and Analgesic Effects of Aqueous and Methanolic Stem Bark Extracts of<i>Piliostigma thonningii</i>(Schumach.)

Acute Oral Toxicity and Anti-inflammatory and Analgesic Effects of Aqueous and Methanolic Stem Bark Extracts ofPiliostigma thonningii(Schumach.)