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Phosphorylated histone 2AX ( γ H2AX) is a long-standing marker for DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) from ionizing radiation in the field of radiobiology. This led to the perception of  γ H2AX being a general marker of direct DNA damage with the treatment of other agents such as low-dose exogenous ROS that unlikely act on cellular DNA directly. Cold physical plasma confers biomedical effects majorly via release of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS).  In vitro , increase of  γ H2AX has often been observed with plasma treatment, leading to the conclusion that DNA damage is a direct consequence of plasma exposure. However, increase in  γ H2AX also occurs during apoptosis, which is often observed with plasma treatment as well. Moreover, it must be questioned if plasma-derived ROS can reach into the nucleus and still be reactive enough to damage DNA directly. We investigated  γ H2AX induction in a lymphocyte cell line upon ROS exposure (plasma, hydrogen peroxide, or hypochlorous acid) or UV-B light. Cytotoxicity and  γ H2AX induction was abrogated by the use of antioxidants with all types of ROS treatment but not UV radiation. H2AX phosphorylation levels were overall independent of analyzing either all nucleated cells or segmenting  γ H2AX phosphorylation for each cell cycle phase. SB202190 (p38-MAPK inhibitor) and Z-VAD-FMK (pan-caspase inhibitor) significantly inhibited  γ H2AX induction upon ROS but not UV treatment. Finally, and despite  γ H2AX induction, UV but not plasma treatment led to significantly increased micronucleus formation, which is a functional read-out of genotoxic DNA DSBs. We conclude that plasma-mediated and low-ROS  γ H2AX induction depends on caspase activation and hence is not the cause but consequence of apoptosis induction. Moreover, we could not identify lasting mutagenic effects with plasma treatment despite phosphorylation of H2AX.

Elevated H2AX Phosphorylation Observed with kINPen Plasma Treatment Is Not Caused by ROS-Mediated DNA Damage but Is the Consequence of Apoptosis