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Background: Despite similar education and background, programmers can exhibitvast differences in efficacy. While research has identified some potentialfactors, such as programming experience and domain knowledge, the effect ofthese factors on programmers' efficacy is not well understood.  Aims: We aim at unraveling the relationship between efficacy (speed andcorrectness) and measures of programming experience. We further investigate thecorrelates of programmer efficacy in terms of reading behavior and cognitiveload.  Method: For this purpose, we conducted a controlled experiment with37~participants using electroencephalography (EEG) and eye tracking. We askedparticipants to comprehend up to 32 Java source-code snippets and observedtheir eye gaze and neural correlates of cognitive load. We analyzed thecorrelation of participants' efficacy with popular programming experiencemeasures.  Results: We found that programmers with high efficacy read source code moretargeted and with lower cognitive load. Commonly used experience levels do notpredict programmer efficacy well, but self-estimation and indicators oflearning eagerness are fairly accurate.  Implications: The identified correlates of programmer efficacy can be usedfor future research and practice (e.g., hiring). Future research should alsoconsider efficacy as a group sampling method, rather than using simpleexperience measures.

Correlates of Programmer Efficacy and Their Link to Experience: A Combined EEG and Eye-Tracking Study