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Most public blockchain protocols, including the popular Bitcoin and Ethereumblockchains, do not formally specify the order in which miners should selecttransactions from the pool of pending (or uncommitted) transactions forinclusion in the blockchain. Over the years, informal conventions or "norms"for transaction ordering have, however, emerged via the use of shared softwareby miners, e.g., the GetBlockTemplate (GBT) mining protocol in Bitcoin Core.Today, a widely held view is that Bitcoin miners prioritize transactions basedon their offered "transaction fee-per-byte." Bitcoin users are, consequently,encouraged to increase the fees to accelerate the commitment of theirtransactions, particularly during periods of congestion. In this paper, weaudit the Bitcoin blockchain and present statistically significant evidence ofmining pools deviating from the norms to accelerate the commitment oftransactions for which they have (i) a selfish or vested interest, or (ii)received dark-fee payments via opaque (non-public) side-channels. Asblockchains are increasingly being used as a record-keeping substrate for avariety of decentralized (financial technology) systems, our findings call foran urgent discussion on defining neutrality norms that miners must adhere towhen ordering transactions in the chains. Finally, we make our data sets andscripts publicly available.

Selfish & Opaque Transaction Ordering in the Bitcoin Blockchain: The Case for Chain Neutrality