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Blockchain applications have shown huge potential in various domains. Proof of Work (PoW) is the key procedure in blockchain applications, which exhibits the memory-bound characteristic and hinders the performance improvement of blockchain accelerators. In order to mitigate the "memory wall" and improve the performance of memory-hard PoW accelerators, using Ethash as an example, we optimize the memory architecture from two perspectives: 1) Hiding memory latency. We propose specialized context switch design to overcome the uncertain cycles of repetitive memory requests. 2) Increasing memory bandwidth utilization. We introduce on-chip memory that stores a portion of the Ethash directed acyclic graph (DAG) for larger effective memory bandwidth, and further propose adopting embedded NOR flash to fulfill the role. Then, we conduct extensive experiments to explore the design space of our optimized memory architecture for Ethash, including number of hash cores, on-chip/off-chip memory technologies and specifications. Based on the design space exploration, we finally provide the guidance for designing the memory-bound PoW accelerator. The experiment results show that our optimized designs achieve 8.7% -- 55% higher hash rate and 17% -- 120% higher hash rate per Joule compared with the baseline design in different configurations.

Memory-Bound Proof-of-Work Acceleration for Blockchain Applications