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Drug-drug interactions (DDIs) and their associated adverse drug reactions (ADRs) represent a significant detriment to the public health. Existing research on DDIs is primarily focused on pairwise DDI detection and prediction. It is highly needed to develop effective computational tools for high-order DDI prediction. Here we show that deep learning can be effectively utilized to predict ADRs induced from high-order DDIs. In this manuscript, we present a deep learning model D3I for cardinality-invariant and order-invariant high-order DDI prediction. The D3I models achieve 0.740 F1 value and 0.847 AUC value on balanced high-order DDI prediction, and outperform other models on order-2 DDI prediction. These results demonstrate the strong potential of D3I and deep learning models in tackling the prediction problems of high-order DDIs and their induced ADRs. In addition, D3I is able to derive single drug representations, which conform to our current knowledge on single drugs, from their behaviors in drug combinations. D3I can also correctly predict ADRs for drug combinations in which no single drugs on their own induce ADRs, and improve ADR prediction on drug pairs by learning from all drug combinations. To the best of our knowledge, D3I is the first deep model for high-order DDI prediction.

Deep Learning for High-Order Drug-Drug Interaction Prediction