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Antibiotics are entrained in agricultural soil through the application of manures from medicated animals. In the present study, a series of small field plots was established in 1999 that receive annual spring applications of a mixture of tylosin, sulfamethazine, and chlortetracycline at concentrations ranging from 0.1 to 10 mg · kg−1 soil. These antibiotics are commonly used in commercial swine production. The field plots were cropped continuously for soybeans, and in 2012, after 14 annual antibiotic applications, the nodules from soybean roots were sampled and the occupying bradyrhizobia were characterized. Nodules and isolates were serotyped, and isolates were distinguished using 16S rRNA gene and 16S to 23S rRNA gene intergenic spacer region sequencing, multilocus sequence typing, and RSα fingerprinting. Treatment with the antibiotic mixture skewed the population of bradyrhizobia dominating the nodule occupancy, with a significantly larger proportion ofBradyrhizobium liaoningense organisms even at the lowest dose of 0.1 mg · kg−1 soil. Likewise, all doses of antibiotics altered the distribution of RSα fingerprint types. Bradyrhizobia were phenotypically evaluated for their sensitivity to the antibiotics, and there was no association betweenin situ treatment and a decreased sensitivity to the drugs. Overall, long-term exposure to the antibiotic mixture altered the composition of bradyrhizobial populations occupying nitrogen-fixing nodules, apparently through an indirect effect not associated with the sensitivity to the drugs. Further work evaluating agronomic impacts is warranted.IMPORTANCE Antibiotics are entrained in agricultural soil through the application of animal or human waste or by irrigation with reused wastewater. Soybeans obtain nitrogen through symbiotic nitrogen fixation. Here, we evaluated the impact of 14 annual exposures to antibiotics commonly used in swine production on the distribution of bradyrhizobia occupying nitrogen-fixing nodules on soybean roots in a long-term field experiment. By means of various sequencing and genomic fingerprinting techniques, the repeated exposure to a mixture of tylosin, sulfamethazine, and chlortetracycline each at a nominal soil concentration of 0.1 mg · kg−1 soil was found to modify the diversity and identity of bradyrhizobia occupying the nodules. Nodule occupancy was not associated with the level of sensitivity to the antibiotics, indicating that the observed effects were not due to the direct toxicity of the antibiotics on bradyrhizobia. Altogether, these results indicate the potential for long-term impacts of antibiotics on this agronomically important symbiosis.

applied and environmental microbiology

Long-Term Exposure of Agricultural Soil to Veterinary Antibiotics Changes the Population Structure of Symbiotic Nitrogen-Fixing Rhizobacteria Occupying Nodules of Soybeans (Glycine max)