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The "bag-of-frames" approach (BOF), which encodes audio signals as thelong-term statistical distribution of short-term spectral features, is commonlyregarded as an effective and sufficient way to represent environmental soundrecordings (soundscapes) since its introduction in an influential 2007 article.The present paper describes a concep-tual replication of this seminal articleusing several new soundscape datasets, with results strongly questioning theadequacy of the BOF approach for the task. We show that the good accuracyoriginally re-ported with BOF likely result from a particularly thankfuldataset with low within-class variability, and that for more realisticdatasets, BOF in fact does not perform significantly better than a mereone-point av-erage of the signal's features. Soundscape modeling, therefore,may not be the closed case it was once thought to be. Progress, we ar-gue,could lie in reconsidering the problem of considering individual acousticalevents within each soundscape.

The bag-of-frames approach: a not so sufficient model for urban soundscapes