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Magnetic resonance-guided high intensity focused ultrasound (MRgHIFU) is a noninvasive method for thermal ablation, which exploits the capabilities of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for excellent visualization of the target and for near real-time thermometry. Oncological quality of ablation may be obtained by volumetric sonication under automatic feedback control of the temperature. For this purpose, a new nonparametric (i.e., model independent) temperature controller, using nonlinear negative reaction, was designed and evaluated for the iterated sonication of a prescribed pattern of foci. The main objective was to achieve the same thermal history at each sonication point during volumetric MRgHIFU. Differently sized linear and circular trajectories were investigated ex vivo and in vivo using a phased-array HIFU transducer. A clinical 3T MRI scanner was used and the temperature elevation was measured in five slices simultaneously with a voxel size of 1 &#x00D7; 1 &#x00D7; 5 mm<sup>3</sup> and temporal resolution of 4 s. In vivo results indicated a similar thermal history of each sonicated focus along the prescribed pattern, that was 17.3 &#x00B1; 0.5&#x00B0;C as compared to 16&#x00B0;C prescribed temperature elevation. The spatio-temporal control of the temperature also enabled meaningful comparison of various sonication patterns in terms of dosimetry and near-field safety. The thermal build-up tended to drift downwards in the HIFU transducer with a circular scan.

A Nonparametric Temperature Controller With Nonlinear Negative Reaction for Multi-Point Rapid MR-Guided HIFU Ablation