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Purpose  Fused filament fabrication (FFF) using tough poly lactic acid (PLA) was determined to be the most suited method to achieve low-cost prosthetic sockets. However, improvement in the material properties is desirable to strengthen these sockets. This study aims to evaluate annealing as a potential method to improve material properties by a heat treatment of the object after 3D printing.    Design/methodology/approach  Four different annealing methods and a control group were tested according to ISO standard 527–1 and ISO standard 527–2. The four annealing methods included: oven; sand; water; and glycerol annealing. Tests were performed on longitudinal and transversal 3D printed samples. Deformation was determined on 3D printed test rings.    Findings  Annealing using an oven, sand and water resulted in a significant increase in tensile strength in longitudinally 3D printed tensile test samples. However, the tensile strength was decreased in the transversally 3D printed tensile test samples. The tensile modulus had no significant increase in the longitudinally and transversally printed samples. Sand annealing resulted in the least deformation, with a shrinkage of 2.04% of inner diameter and an increase in height of 1.99% for the horizontally annealed test rings.    Research limitations/implications  The annealing of prosthetic sockets is not recommended as a decrease in tensile strength in transversally printed tensile test samples was observed. More research is needed towards the strengthening of tough PLA in both print directions.    Originality/value  This paper fulfils the need for understanding the impact of annealing on 3D printed items intended for daily use, such as a prosthetic socket.

The effect of annealing on deformation and mechanical strength of tough PLA and its application in 3D printed prosthetic sockets