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We study thermal axion production around the confinement scale. At highertemperatures, we extend current calculations to account for the masses of heavyquarks, whereas we quantify production via hadron scattering at lowertemperatures. Matching our results between the two opposite regimes provides uswith a continuous axion production rate across the QCD phase transition. Weemploy such a rate to quantify the axion contribution to the effective numberof neutrino species.

Thermal axion production at low temperatures: a smooth treatment of the QCD phase transition