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Predators affect prey through both consumptive and non-consumptive effects (NCEs), and prey typically face threats from multiple simultaneous predators. While different predators have a variety of NCEs on prey, little is known regarding effects of simultaneous multiple predators on demographic habitat selection. Demographic habitat selection is unique among NCEs, especially in discrete habitat patches; decisions directly affect both distribution and abundance of species across habitat patches, rather than simply abundance and performance within patches. Our goal was to determine strength of avoidance responses to multiple species/species combinations of predatory fish, and responses to predator richness. We assessed responses of ovipositing grey treefrogs (Hyla chrysoscelis ) to three predatory fish species and substitutive combination of species. In single-species treatments, treefrogs avoided only one species,Notemigonus crysoleucas . All two-species combinations, and the three-species combination, were avoided, including theFundulus chrysotus ×Noturus phaeus combination, of which neither were avoided alone. This suggests emergent properties of multiple predators, with potential interactive effects among cues themselves or in the perception of cues by treefrogs. Our results indicate effects of multiple predators are not predictable based on individual effects, and illustrate the importance and complexity of effects of demographic habitat selection on distribution and abundance.

Predator-specific responses and emergent multi-predator effects on oviposition site choice in grey treefrogs,Hyla chrysoscelis