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Few molecular details of effectors of Heterodera avenae parasitism are known. We performed a high-throughput sequencing analysis of the H. avenae transcriptome at five developmental stages. A total of 82,549 unigenes were ultimately obtained, and 747 transcripts showed best hits to genes putatively encoding carbohydrate-active enzymes in plant-parasitic nematodes that play an important role in the invasion process. A total of 1,480 unigenes were homologous to known phytonematode effectors, and 63 putative novel effectors were identified in the H. avenae transcriptomes. Twenty-three unigenes were analyzed by qRT-PCR and confirmed to be highly expressed during at least one developmental stage. For in situ hybridization, 17 of the 22 tested putative effectors were specifically expressed and located in the subventral gland cells, and five putative novel effectors were specifically expressed in the dorsal gland. Furthermore, 115 transcripts were found to have putative lethal RNA interference (RNAi) phenotypes. Three target genes with lethal RNAi phenotypes and two of the four tested putative effectors were associated with a decrease in the number of cysts through in vitro RNAi technology. These transcriptomic data lay a foundation for further studies of interactions of H. avenae with cereal and H. avenae parasitic control.

Characterization of Putative Effectors from the Cereal Cyst Nematode Heterodera avenae