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Anatase/rutile mixed-phase titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles (NPs) have been found in cosmetics and cotton textiles. Once exposed to sunlight, mixed-phase TiO2 NPs are even more toxic to cells than pure phase NPs; however, the underlying mechanism remains unclear. Considering the unique anatase/rutile heterojunction structure existing in mixed-phase NPs, the potent toxicity of mixed-phase TiO2 NPs probably originates from the high reactive oxygen species (ROS) production because the anatase/rutile heterojunction is constituted by the staggered energy bands that facilitate the electron-hole separation at the interface due to the band alignment. In the present study, a library of mixed-phase TiO2 NPs with different anatase/rutile ratios was established to investigate the potential property-activity relationship and further clarify the underlying molecular mechanism. Under sunlight exposure, these mixed-phase TiO2 NPs could produce significant abiotic ROS and induce hierarchical oxidative stress to HaCaT skin cells and mice skin. The ROS magnitude and toxicity potential of these NPs were found to be proportional to their energy band bending (BB) levels. This means that the toxicity of mixed-phase TiO2 NPs can be correlated to their heterojunction density, and the toxicity potential of mixed-phase TiO2 NPs can be weighed by their BB levels.

Band Alignment-Driven Oxidative Injury to the Skin by Anatase/Rutile Mixed-Phase Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles Under Sunlight Exposure