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Erythropoietin (EPO) derived from  Escherichia coli  is unstable to elevated temperature and tends to aggregate with time, making it unsuitable for high-resolution structure analysis. The mammalian EPO contains about 40% carbohydrate, which makes this protein more stable and less prone to aggregate than non-glycosylated  E.coli -derived EPO, but makes it unsuitable for high-resolution analysis owing to its size and flexibility. In an attempt to decrease the aggregation of  E.coli -derived EPO, the three asparagine residues at positions 24, 38 and 83 were mutated to lysine residues. In the native protein, these residues are the sites of N-linked glycosylation, which suggests that they should be located on the surface of the protein and should not be involved in interactions in the hydrophobic protein core. Therefore, the substitution of basic amino acids for these neutral asparagine residues is not expected to affect the protein structure, but should increase the isoelectric point of the protein and its net positive charge, decreasing its tendency to aggregate at or below neutral pH due to electrostatic interactions. No apparent alterations in receptor binding, as determined by both cell-surface receptor competition assay and  in vitro  receptor dimerization experiments, were observed when these mutations were introduced into the EPO sequence. However, this mutant protein displayed a significant increase in stability to heat treatment and to storage, relative to the wild-type molecule. This resulted in a greater number of observable cross peaks in the mutant EPO in 2D NOESY experiments. However, the mutant was similar to the wild-type in stability when urea was used as a denaturant. This indicates that the introduced mutations resulted in a decrease in aggregation with heating or with prolonged incubation at ambient temperature, without changing the conformational stability or the receptor binding affinity of the mutant protein. This approach of placing charged residues at sites where  N -glycosylation occurs  in vivo  could be applied to other systems as well.

protein engineering

Asn to Lys mutations at three sites which are N-glycosylated in the mammalian protein decrease the aggregation of Escherichia coli-derived erythropoietin