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Growth-regulating factors (GRFs) belong to a small family of transcription factors that are highly conserved in plants. GRFs regulate many developmental processes and plant responses to biotic and abiotic stimuli. Despite the importance of GRFs, a detailed mechanistic understanding of their regulatory functions is still lacking. In this study, we used ChIP sequencing (ChIP-seq) to identify genome-wide binding sites of Arabidopsis GRF1 and GRF3, and correspondingly their direct downstream target genes. RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) analysis revealed that GRF1 and GRF3 regulate the expression of a significant number of the identified direct targets. The target genes unveiled broad regulatory functions of GRF1 and GRF3 in plant growth and development, phytohormone biosynthesis and signaling, and the cell cycle. Our analyses also revealed that clock core genes and genes with stress- and defense-related functions are most predominant among the GRF1- and GRF3-bound targets, providing insights into a possible role for these transcription factors in mediating growth–defense antagonism and integrating environmental stimuli into developmental programs. Additionally, GRF1 and GRF3 target molecular nodes of growth–defense antagonism and modulate the levels of defense- and development-related hormones in opposite directions. Taken together, our results point to GRF1 and GRF3 as potential key determinants of plant fitness under stress conditions.

A role for Arabidopsis growth-regulating factors 1 and 3 in growth–stress antagonism