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Sexual dimorphism evolves as a response to different selective pressures on males and females. In mammals, sexual selection on traits that improve a male’s ability to compete for access to mates is a common cause of sexual dimorphism. In addition to body mass, adaptations in specific components of the musculoskeletal system that increase strength, stability, and agility, may improve male fighting performance. Here we test the hypotheses that males, when compared to females, are more specialized for physical competition in their skeletal anatomy and that the degree of this sexual dimorphism increases with the intensity of male–male competition. In three species of voles (Cricetidae: Arvicolinae: Microtus), we found partial support for these hypotheses. Male-biased sexual dimorphism in a set of functional indices associated with improved fighting performance was identified in the postcranial anatomy. This dimorphism was greatest in the polygynous Microtus californicus, absent in the monogamous M. ochrogaster, and intermediate in the promiscuous or socially flexible M. oeconomus. However, in the skull, we found results opposite to our predictions. Females had larger skulls relative to overall skeletal size than did males. This may be associated with selection for increased food processing efficiency, which should be highly important because of the compounding effects of increased caloric requirements during gestation and lactation, and the generally low-quality diet of voles. In addition, larger heads in females may be associated with selection for greater digging ability or for defending offspring. These results suggest disparate selective pressures on the postcranial skeletons and skulls of male and female voles.

Sexual dimorphism in skeletal shape in voles (Arvicolinae): disparate selection on male bodies and female heads