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Mantle-based stresses have been proposed to explain the occurrence of deformation in the interior regions of continental plates, far from the effects of plate boundary processes. We examine how the gravitational removal of a dense mantle lithosphere root may induce deformation of the overlying crust. Simplified numerical models and a theoretical analysis are used to investigate the physical mechanisms for deformation and assess the surface expression of removal. Three behaviours are identified: (1) where the entire crust is strong, stresses from the downwelling mantle are efficiently transferred through the crust. There is little crustal deformation and removal is accompanied by surface subsidence and a negative free-air gravity anomaly. Surface uplift and increased free-air gravity occur after the dense root detaches. (2) If the mid-crust is weak, the dense root creates a lateral pressure gradient in the crust that drives Poiseuille flow in the weak layer. This induces crustal thickening, surface uplift and a minor free-air gravity anomaly above the root. (3) If the lower crust is weak, deformation occurs through pressure-driven Poiseuille flow and Couette flow due to basal shear. This can overthicken the crust, producing a topographic high and a negative free-air gravity anomaly above the root. In the latter two cases, surface uplift occurs prior to the removal of the mantle stress. The modeling results predict that syn-removal uplift will occur if the crustal viscosity is less than ∼10^(21) Pa s, corresponding to temperatures greater than ∼400–500 °C for a dry and felsic or wet and mafic composition, and ∼900 °C for a dry and mafic composition. If crustal temperatures are lower than this, lithosphere removal is marked by the formation of a basin. These results can explain the variety of surface expressions observed above areas of downwelling mantle. In addition, observations of the surface deflection may provide a way to constrain the vertical rheological structure of the crust.

Crustal deformation induced by mantle dynamics: insights from models of gravitational lithosphere removal