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Employing ethnographic and historical research methods, this article examines the organization and delivery of parallel services (locally generated alternatives to formal, externally controlled services) for older residents in four of the all-Black towns of Oklahoma. These towns are rural, social-ecological enclaves that generally have remained totally African American since they were established in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Elders, even impaired older people, are prominent agents in the production of alternative services, and the organization of parallel services can be directly related to historical and contextual characteristics of the communities. The results demonstrate the value of taking into account community history and context, as well as the mix of parallel services, when developing formal services for minority communities.

Historical and Contextual Correlates of Parallel Services for Elders in African American Communities