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The question of Jewish ancestry has been the subject of controversy for overtwo centuries and has yet to be resolved. The "Rhineland Hypothesis" proposesthat Eastern European Jews emerged from a small group of German Jews whomigrated eastward and expanded rapidly. Alternatively, the "KhazarianHypothesis" suggests that Eastern European descended from Judean tribes whojoined the Khazars, an amalgam of Turkic clans that settled the Caucasus in theearly centuries CE and converted to Judaism in the 8th century. The JudaizedEmpire was continuously reinforced with Mesopotamian and Greco-Roman Jews untilthe 13th century. Following the collapse of their empire, the Judeo-Khazarsfled to Eastern Europe. The rise of European Jewry is therefore explained bythe contribution of the Judeo-Khazars. Thus far, however, their contributionhas been estimated only empirically; the absence of genome-wide data fromCaucasus populations precluded testing the Khazarian Hypothesis. Recentsequencing of modern Caucasus populations prompted us to revisit the KhazarianHypothesis and compare it with the Rhineland Hypothesis. We applied a widerange of population genetic analyses - including principal component,biogeographical origin, admixture, identity by descent, allele sharingdistance, and uniparental analyses - to compare these two hypotheses. Ourfindings support the Khazarian Hypothesis and portray the European Jewishgenome as a mosaic of Caucasus, European, and Semitic ancestries, therebyconsolidating previous contradictory reports of Jewish ancestry.

The Missing Link of Jewish European Ancestry: Contrasting the Rhineland and the Khazarian Hypotheses