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Background Cyber victimization (CV) and offline relational victimization (ORV) both impede adolescent development and might pose self-harm or suicide. The aim of this work is to examine the risk and protective factors of the two experiences across gender. Methods A total of 1,712 junior and senior high school students who came from 34 schools randomly sampled from northern Taiwan. The study included multi-facet supports (i.e. maternal, paternal, grandparent, peer, and teacher supports), positive and negative peer connections, smartphone addiction and family characteristics (i.e. parental marital status and self-perceived financial status) as predictors. Results 10.3% of the participants reported CV more than once (56.8% girls) and 35.2% of them reported ORV more than once (52.4% girls) in the last three months. Results of logistic regression models showed that smartphone addiction positively related to CV (boys: OR = 1.3, 95% CI = 1.1-1.6; girls: OR = 1.6, 95% CI = 1.3-2.0) and ORV (boys: OR = 1.2, 95% CI = 1.1-1.4; girls: OR = 1.2, 95% CI = 1.1-1.3) regardless gender. Negative peer connection related to ORV only among boys (OR = 1.4, 95% CI = 1.7-1.7). Low-level self-perceived financial status related to having CV (OR = 2.8, 95% CI = 1.4-5.5) and ORV (OR = 2.0, 95% CI = 1.2-3.4) only among girls. Interestingly, paternal support is the only significant protective factor among three family supports. Paternal support negatively associated with CV (OR = 0.8, 95% CI = 0.6-0.9) and ORV of boys (OR = 0.8, 95% CI = 0.7-0.9) as well as ORV of girls (OR = 0.8, 95% CI = 0.6-0.9). Furthermore, teacher support negatively associated with girls' CV (OR = 0.8, 95% CI = 0.6-0.9) and boys' ORV (OR = 0.8, 95% CI = 0.7-0.9). Conclusions The study identified a few gender-specific risk factors. For both gender, to prevent CV and ORV, supporting adolescents to avoid smartphone addiction is critical. Enhancing paternal support and teacher support can be effective in preventing adolescents' cyber and offline relational victimization. Key messages Paternal and teacher supports, rather than other sources of supports, are protective factors of cyber victimization and offline relational victimization among adolescents. Smartphone addiction, regardless of gender, not only positively associated with cyber victimization but also positively related to offline relational victimization.

Virtual and reality: risk and protective factors of cyber and offline relational victimization