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The causes of population differentiation can provide insight into the origins of early barriers to gene flow. Two key drivers of population differentiation are geographic distance and local adaptation to divergent selective environments. When reproductive isolation arises because some populations of a species are under selection to avoid hybridization while others are not, population differentiation and even speciation can result. Spadefoot toad populations Spea multiplicata that are sympatric with a congener have undergone reinforcement. This reinforcement has resulted not only in increased reproductive isolation from the congener, but also in the evolution of reproductive isolation from nearby and distant conspecific allopatric populations. We used multiple approaches to evaluate the contributions of geographic distance and divergent selective environments to population structure across this regional scale in S. multiplicata , based on genotypes from six nuclear microsatellite markers. We compared groups of populations varying in both geographic location and in the presence of a congener. Hierarchical F-statistics and results from cluster analyses and discriminant analyses of principal components all indicate that geographic distance is the stronger contributor to genetic differentiation among S. multiplicata populations at a regional scale. However, we found evidence that adaptation to divergent selective environments also contributes to population structure. Our findings highlight how variation in the balance of evolutionary forces acting across a species' range can lead to variation in the relative contributions of geographic distance and local adaptation to population differentiation across different spatial scales.

Population differentiation at a regional scale in spadefoot toads: contributions of distance and divergent selective environments