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Studies of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) have shown developmental changes in the cortical mantle. Different dimensions of cortical morphology, such as surface area and thickness, relate to different neurodevelopmental mechanisms. As such, studying multiple dimensions may inform us about the developmental origins of ADHD. Furthermore, results from existing longitudinal samples await replication. Therefore, we conducted a longitudinal study of multiple cortical dimensions in a sizable, independent ADHD sample. We analyzed 297 anatomical MRI scans from two matched groups of 94 subjects with ADHD and 94 controls, aged 6–28 years. We estimated the developmental trajectories of cortical volume, surface, thickness and gyrification for 68 regions using mixed-effects regression analysis. Subjects with ADHD had smaller overall cortical volume, predominantly driven by decreases in frontal lobe volume that were associated with reduced surface area and gyrification. Nearly all decreases were stable across development. Only a few decreases survived stringent Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons, with the smallest detectable Cohen's  d  |0.43|. There were no between-group differences in cortical thickness, or in subcortical volumes. Our results suggest that ADHD is associated with developmentally persistent reductions in frontal cortical volume, surface area, and gyrification. This may implicate early neurodevelopmental mechanisms regulating cortical expansion and convolution in ADHD.

What can Cortical Development in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Teach us About the Early Developmental Mechanisms Involved?