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Numerous studies have reported large disparities between short cortico-muscle conduction latencies and long recorded delays between cortical firing and evoked muscle activity. Using methods such as spike- and stimulus-triggered averaging of electromyographic (EMG) activity, previous studies have shown that the time delay between corticomotoneuronal (CM) cell firing and onset of facilitation of forelimb muscle activity ranges from 6.7 to 9.8 ms, depending on the muscle group tested. In contrast, numerous studies have reported delays of 60-122 ms between cortical cell firing onset and either EMG or movement onset during motor tasks. To further investigate this disparity, we simulated rapid active movement by applying frequency-modulated stimulus trains to M1 cortical sites in a rhesus macaque performing a movement task. This yielded corresponding EMG modulations, the latency of which could be measured relative to the stimulus modulations. The overall mean delay from stimulus frequency modulation to EMG modulation was 11.5 ± 5.6 ms, matching closely the conduction time through the cortico-muscle pathway (12.6 ± 2.0 ms) derived from poststimulus facilitation peaks computed at the same sites. We conclude that, during active movement, the delay between modulated M1 cortical output and its impact on muscle activity approaches the physical cortico-muscle conduction time.

Timing of Cortico-Muscle Transmission During Active Movement