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The quantum behaviour of the electromagnetic field in mesoscopic elements isintimately linked to the quantization of the charge. In order to probenonclassical aspects of the field in those elements, it is essential thatthermal noise be reduced to the quantum level, i.e. to scales where kT <h{\nu}. This is easily achieved in dilution refrigerators for frequencies of afew GHz, i.e. in the microwave domain. Several recent experiments havehighlighted the link between discrete charge transport and discrete photonemission in simple mesoscopic elements such as a tunnel junction. Photocountstatistics are inferred from the measurement of continuous variables such asthe quadratures of the field.

Statistics of the quantized microwave electromagnetic field in mesoscopic elements at low temperature