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This article investigates the impact that interest groups exert on the cybersecurity strategy of democratic countries. My findings are twofold. First, interest groups have shaped the strategy of many democracies by promoting transparency and civil rights as well as through open debate and policy scrutiny. They have consolidated their role as guardians of institutional accountability. They have subjected lawmakers to the power of the electoral majority to veto offensive policy and demanded that government officials comply with international rules of behaviour. Second, I explore interest groups in mature democracies in the United States, Europe and Japan to show that the national response to cyber threats is broadly shaped by interest groups working closely with the government to ensure that its policy remain within the general framework of a larger, vibrant civil society. Specifically, I demonstrate these points by using Japan as a case study. Japanese interest groups have acknowledged that cyberattacks pose a threat to Japanese consumers and opposed the adoption of radical policy to counter them. Japan's case indicates how interest groups can promote voters' preferences through the advocacy of privacy protection and the collective opposition to constitutional revision that is needed for radical policy.

The soft underbelly of cyber defence in democracy: how interest groups soften Japan’s cyber policy