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Providencia  as an opportunistic pathogen can cause serious infection, and moreover the emergence of multi-drug-resistant  Providencia  strains poses a potentially life-threatening risk to public health. However, a comprehensive genomic study to reveal the population structure and dissemination of  Providencia  is still lacking. In this study, we conducted a genomic epidemiology analysis on the 580 global sequenced  Providencia  isolates, including 257 ones sequenced in this study (42 ones were fully sequenced). We established a genome sequence-based species classification scheme for  Providencia , redefining the conventional 11  Providencia  species into seven genocomplexes that were further divided into 18 genospecies, providing an extensively updated reference for  Providencia  species discrimination based on the largest  Providencia  genome dataset to date. We then dissected the profile of antimicrobial resistance genes and the prevalence of multi-drug-resistant  Providencia  strains among these genocomplexes/genospecies, disclosing the presence of diverse and abundant antimicrobial resistance genes and high resistance ratios against multiple classes of drugs in  Providencia . We further dissected the genetic basis for the spread of  blaNDM-1  in  Providencia .  blaNDM-1  genes were mainly carried by five incompatible (Inc) groups of plasmids: IncC, IncW, Inc pPROV114-NR , Inc pCHS4.1-3 , and Inc pPrY2001 , and the last three were newly designated in this study. By tracking the spread of  blaNDM-1 -carrying plasmids, IncC, Inc pPROV114-NR , Inc pCHS4.1-3 , and Inc pPrY2001  plasmids were found to be highly involved in parallel horizontal transfer or vertical clonal expansion of  blaNDM-1  among  Providencia . Overall, our study provided a comprehensive genomic view of species differentiation, antimicrobial resistance prevalence, and plasmid-mediated  blaNDM-1  dissemination in  Providencia .

Genomic epidemiology and heterogeneity of Providencia and their bla NDM-1 -carrying plasmids