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This study investigates the potential of automated classification using prompt-based learning approaches with transformer models (large language models trained in an unsupervised manner) for a domain-specific classification task. Prompt-based learning with zero or few shots has the potential to (1) make use of artificial intelligence without sophisticated programming skills and (2) make use of artificial intelligence without fine-tuning models with large amounts of labeled training data. We apply this novel method to perform an experiment using so-called zero-shot classification as a baseline model and a few-shot approach for classification. For comparison, we also fine-tune a language model on the given classification task and conducted a second independent human rating to compare it with the given human ratings from the original study. The used dataset consists of 2,088 email responses to a domain-specific problem-solving task that were manually labeled for their professional communication style. With the novel prompt-based learning approach, we achieved a Cohen’s kappa of .40, while the fine-tuning approach yields a kappa of .59, and the new human rating achieved a kappa of .58 with the original human ratings. However, the classifications from the machine learning models have the advantage that each prediction is provided with a reliability estimate allowing us to identify responses that are difficult to score. We, therefore, argue that response ratings should be based on a reciprocal workflow of machine raters and human raters, where the machine rates easy-to-classify responses and the human raters focus and agree on the responses that are difficult to classify. Further, we believe that this new, more intuitive, prompt-based learning approach will enable more people to use artificial intelligence.

Prompt text classifications with transformer models! An exemplary introduction to prompt-based learning with large language models