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A 150-day experiment was performed to investigate the stimulatory effect of a promising phytoremediation strategy consisting of  Suaeda heteroptera  ( S. heteroptera ),  Nereis succinea  ( N. succinea ), and oil-degrading bacteria for cleaning up total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPHs) in spiked sediment. Inoculation with oil-degrading bacteria and/or  N. succinea  increased plant yield and TPH accumulation in  S. heteroptera  plants. The highest TPH dissipation (40.5%) was obtained in the combination treatment, i.e.,  S. heteroptera  + oil-degrading bacteria +  N. succinea , in which the sediment TPH concentration decreased from an initial value of 3955 to 2355 mg/kg in 150 days. BAF, BCF, and TF confirmed the role of  N. succinea  and oil-degrading bacteria in the amelioration and translocation of TPHs. In addition, TPH toxicity of  S. heteroptera  was alleviated by  N. succinea  and oil-degrading bacteria addition through the reduction of oxidative stress. Therefore,  S. heteroptera  could be used for cleaning up oil-contaminated sediment, particularly in the presence of oil-degrading bacteria +  N. succinea . Field studies on oil-degrading bacteria +  N. succinea  may provide new insights on the rehabilitation and restoration of sediments contaminated by TPHs.

Phytoremediation of crude oil-contaminated sediment using Suaeda heteroptera enhanced by Nereis succinea and oil-degrading bacteria