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Cleistes rosea  and 10 other taxa comprise a complex widely distributed in various open vegetation types from eastern South America to Panama. The taxonomic identity of most of these taxa is unclear and their relationships with  C. rosea  have never been satisfactorily discussed or tested. Here, we employ molecular phylogenetics, morphometrics and morphological, ecological and geographic distribution data to investigate the relationships and taxonomy of  Cleistes rosea  and related species. Our results confirm that  Cleistes rosea  and  Cleistes castaneoides  are sister species and although highly similar in general floral morphology, they differ in vegetative characters, distribution, habitat, floral scent, and lip characters. Both species show local variations regarding floral characters, particularly the flower colour, and such differences were used here to delimit infraspecific taxa within the  C. rosea / C. castaneoides  clade. While  C. rosea  var.  guianensis  var. nov. is restricted to French Guiana, and  C. rosea  var.  buenaventurae  stat. &amp; comb. nov. is restricted to low altitudes on the western side of the Cordillera Occidental in the Chocó region of Colombia,  C. castaneoides  var.  castaneoides  and  C. castaneoides  var.  augusta  comb. nov. are sympatric throughout their distribution.  Cleistes abdita , formerly known as  C. rosea  f.  pallida , is similar to  C. castaneoides  but distinguished by the smaller flowers and restricted distribution to Amazonian savannas.  Cleistes rosea  is distributed throughout the north of the Andes and northern South America. In turn,  C. castaneoides  occurs mainly in South-eastern and Central-western Brazil. Still, the distribution of these three species overlaps in the Guiana Shield, where the differentiation between them is less evident. Our results provide evidence of the plasticity of the floral morphology of  Cleistes , especially the lip, and highlight that hitherto neglected characters, such as vegetative morphology, habitat, and floral scent, are particularly informative for the characterization of species and taxonomy of the genus.

Clarifying the identity of the Cleistes rosea complex (Orchidaceae) based on integrative taxonomy