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Geographically weighted regression (GWR) is a classical method of modeling spatially non-stationary relationships. The geographically neural network weighted regression (GNNWR) model solves the problem of the inaccurate construction of spatial weight kernels using a spatially weighted neural network. However, when the spatial distribution of observations is uneven, the spatial proximity expression in the input of GWR and GNNWR models does not fully represent the impact of the whole research space on the estimating point. Therefore, we established a global spatial proximity grid (GSPG) to express the spatial proximity of each estimating point and proposed a spatially weighted convolutional neural network (SWCNN) to extract the relationship between the GSPG and spatial weights. Finally, we proposed a geographically convolutional neural network weighted regression (GCNNWR) model combining SWCNN and ordinary linear regression (OLR) model to estimate spatial non-stationarity. We used two case studies of simulated data and real environment data to demonstrate the advancements of the GCNNWR model. The GCNNWR model achieved higher estimation accuracy and greater predictive power than the OLR, GWR, multi-scale GWR (MGWR), and GNNWR models. Moreover, the GCNNWR model maintained its better stability and accuracy in estimating spatially non-stationary relationships when the distribution of observations was uneven.

international journal of geographical information science

Geographically convolutional neural network weighted regression: a method for modeling spatially non-stationary relationships based on a global spatial proximity grid