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Empirical insights on the attitudinal correlates of direct democracy are inconclusive. On the one hand, direct democracy bears a conceptual resemblance with populist ideas. On the other hand, participatory democrats advocate the use of direct democracy precisely on grounds that it promises to educate citizens. This paper complements tests of arguments positing an educative potential of direct democracy with tests of its populist potential. We make use of original survey data collected in the German  Bundesländer , which present a relatively underappreciated, yet interesting and representative case for studying direct democracy. Multilevel models indicate that political attitudes are neither more populist nor more supportive of the political system among citizens in direct democratic contexts. The story is more complicated though as the relationship between direct democracy and populist attitudes is conditional on the ideological orientation of a citizen.

Direct democracy, political support and populism–attitudinal patterns in the German Bundesländer