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Sports matches during the COVID-19 pandemic have been held without spectators. Exploiting this unprecedented situation as a natural experiment, we examine the impacts of social pressure on the match outcomes in Japan’s professional football league. As a result of the difference-in-difference estimation, we find that the number of fouls awarded to home team significantly decreases by about 1.05 in the matches with spectators, supporting the referee bias due to social pressure by the home-team’s supporters. In addition, the results indicate that the absolute number of the home-team’s supporters is more dominant in the source of referee bias than their share in the stadium.

Social pressure in football matches: an event study of ‘Remote Matches’ in Japan