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By the late Ming, the concept of ‘the mind/heart-cum-principle’ 心即理 had generated confusion in the relations between  xing  (human nature) and  xin  (mind/heart). Moreover, with the increasing interpenetration of the three teachings of Confucianism, Buddhism and Daoism, some scholars became gravely concerned that the perversion of traditional Confucian thinking had resulted in the degeneration of the moral and social order. Li Cai (1529–1607) was one of these concerned scholars. Wielding the two concepts of ‘ zhizhi ’ (knowing the ultimate end) and ‘ xiushen ’ (self-cultivation) in the  Great Learning , Li wrestled with Wang Yangming’s teachings by reasserting the primacy of  xing , insisting that moral reality must involve direct individual action in order to preserve the unity of substance and effort. Li’s keen awareness of the inner tension between the mind/heart and  xing  not only prompted his critical reflections on Wang ’s thought but also on Zhu Xi’s. In so doing, he sought to address the fundamental question of what Confucianism is by clarifying the boundaries between the three teachings, and reshaping the spiritual values of Confucianism.

asian philosophy

Reasserting the primacy of  xing  (human nature) and self-cultivation ( xiushen ): Li Cai’s (1529-1607) defense of Confucianism against the interpenetration of the three teachings