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Throughout the Second World War, the United States took part in a series of personnel exchanges with the Third Reich and other belligerent nations. These delicate operations initially focused on diplomatic personnel and other prominent individuals trapped on both sides of the Atlantic when the U.S. entered the war. However, the evolving series of exchanges rapidly expanded to include civilians who had been interned by both sides, including ordinary men, women, and children. American officials were eager to repatriate U.S. citizens who had been caught up in the Reich or occupied countries, while they also proved eager to expel German Americans who had been detained on U.S. soil at the outbreak of war and now languished in internment camps. Many of these individuals and families would consequently end up being sent to the Reich, including in some cases American citizens. This article examines the development and dynamics of the U.S.-German civilian exchange program during the war and immediately after to explore how and why both governments were willing to take part, the domestic political calculations and geopolitical factors that impacted its direction, and the human impact of internment, detention, and repatriation in the midst of a world war.

A Crisis of Identity: Good Aliens, Bad Americans, or Bargaining Chips? U.S. Civilian Exchanges with the Third Reich during World War II