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Haematite (Fe 2 O 3 ) loaded on graphitic carbon nitride (g-C 3 N 4 ) was synthesised as a new photocatalyst by hydrothermal method, and its photocatalytic activity was evaluated for the degradation of ciprofloxacin (CIP) from aqueous solutions. Structural properties determined by scanning electron microscope (SEM), X-ray powder diffraction (XRD), and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) showed that Fe 2 O 3  nanoparticles were successfully prepared and a good interaction occurred between g-C 3 N 4  and Fe 2 O 3 . The g-C 3 N 4 /Fe 2 O 3 /UV system showed higher degradation efficiencies than UV and g-C 3 N 4 /Fe 2 O 3  alone. The maximum removal of CIP (100%) and TOC (93.86%) was achieved at pH of 7, photocatalytic dosage of 0.3 g/L, radiation intensity of 36 W, and reaction time of 60 min. The rate of degradation of CIP was investigated by first-order kinetic and its constant rate confirmed the influence of factors. Trapping experiments showed that hole (h + ), hydroxyl radical ( • OH) and superoxide radical (O 2•- ) were involved in photodegradation of CIP, however, h +  and  • OH plays major role in the degradation of the target pollutant. The excellent stability and recyclability of g-C 3 N 4 /Fe 2 O 3  was confirmed by five consecutive reaction cycles. The energy consumption of the system for different concentrations of CIP (10–50 mg/L) was in the range of 9–44.02 kWh/m 3 , which emphasises that the g-C 3 N 4 /Fe 2 O 3 /UV process is energy-efficient. The BOD 5 /COD rate showed that the photocatalytic process can degrade CIP into degradable compounds. The presence of NH 4+ , NO 3−  and F −  anions in the treated effluent indicates that CIP is well mineralised. Toxicity experiments performed by  Escherichia coli (E. coli)  and  Enterococcus faecalis (E. faecalis)  culture suggested the applicability of the g-C 3 N 4 /Fe 2 O 3 /UV process as a promising and effective technology for treatment of CIP-containing solution.

international journal of environmental analytical chemistry

Photocatalytic degradation of ciprofloxacin with Fe 2 O 3  nanoparticles loaded on graphitic carbon nitride: mineralisation, degradation mechanism and toxicity assessment