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Three large-eddy simulations of open channel flow over a backward-facing step are performed to investigate the effect of submergence on the turbulence, hydrodynamics, and water surface deformation downstream of the step. The deformation of the water surface, the extent of the recirculation zone as well as the strength of the shear layer are a function of relative submergence. All flows downstream of the step exhibit elevated levels of turbulent shear stress and contain significant amounts of turbulent kinetic energy. The instantaneous flow features rollers immediately behind the step and horseshoe-shaped vortices shed from the shear layer, the latter being advected towards the water surface where they cause deformations. It is shown that these vortices can originate from any location along the dividing streamline; however, they contain more energy the closer to the mean attachment location they originate.

Hydrodynamics and turbulence of free-surface flow over a backward-facing step