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Interface science has become a key aspect for fundamental research questionsand for the understanding, design and optimization of urgently needed energyand information technologies. As the interface properties change duringoperation, e.g. under applied electrochemical stimulus, and because multiplebulk and interface processes coexist and compete, detailed operandocharacterization is needed. In this perspective, I present an overview of thestate-of-the art and challenges in selected X-ray spectroscopic techniques,concluding that among others, interface-sensitivity remains a major concern inthe available techniques. I propose and discuss a new method to extractinterface-information from nominally bulk sensitive techniques, and criticallyevaluate the selection of X-ray energies for the recently developed meniscusX-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, a promising operando tool to characterize thesolid-liquid interface. I expect that these advancements along with furtherdevelopments in time and spatial resolution will expand our ability to probethe interface electronic and molecular structure with sub-nm depth and completeour understanding of charge transfer processes during operation.

Operando characterization of interfacial charge transfer processes