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The CCD is a device which converts incident light into photoelectrons. The photoelectrons are stored in a two- dimensional ~2D! array of metal-oxide-semiconductor ~MOS! capacitors, or pixels, that conserve their spatial infor- mation. This electronic image is subsequently readout and recorded by sequential shifting of pixel rows toward and into a shift register, where the electrons of each pixel in a row are sequentially shifted into an analog/digital ~A/D! converter and counted. This process is repeated until all pixels are counted and the image is obtained. Before an image is taken, the chip is ''flushed'' in order to delete all electrons that have accumulated from various processes before the image is taken. However, the raw image signal, or count, obtained is an imperfect mapping of the incident light ~the true signal!. In addition to the true signal, one must consider the effects of thermally generated electrons ~the ''dark count'' !, 1- 4 elec- trons generated by the bias/readout voltage ~the ''bias count'' !, the response function of the individual pixels, and optical effects such as dust shadowing or vignetting. The response function of the pixels plus optics is a multiplicative effect and can be determined by taking a ''flat-field'' expo- sure of a uniformly illuminated ~flat ! field. The dark count is dependent on the temperature and exposure time and can be measured for a given image by taking an equivalent exposure with the shutter closed. The bias count is introduced at each readout and can be measured by reading out a zero second exposure.

Residual images in charged-coupled device detectors