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Recent observational findings have suggested a positive correlation betweenthe occurrence rates of inner super-Earths and outer giant planets. Theseresults raise the question of whether this trend can be reproduced andexplained by planet formation theory. Here, we investigate the properties ofinner super-Earths and outer giant planets that form according to a coreaccretion scenario. We study the mutual relations between these planet speciesin synthetic planetary systems and compare them to the observed exoplanetpopulation. We invoked the Generation 3 Bern model of planet formation andevolution to simulate 1000 multi-planet systems. We then confronted thesesynthetic systems with the observed sample, taking into account the detectionbias that distorts the observed demographics. The formation of warmsuper-Earths and cold Jupiters in the same system is enhanced compared to theindividual appearances, although it is weaker than what has been proposedthrough observations. We attribute the discrepancy to warm and dynamicallyactive giant planets that frequently disrupt the inner systems, particularly inhigh-metallicity environments. In general, a joint occurrence of the two planettypes requires intermediate solid reservoirs in the originating protoplanetarydisk. Furthermore, we find differences in the volatile content of planets indifferent system architectures and predict that high-density super-Earths aremore likely to host an outer giant. This correlation can be testedobservationally.

astronomy and astrophysics

The New Generation Planetary Population Synthesis (NGPPS). III. Warm  super-Earths and cold Jupiters: A weak occurrence correlation, but with a  strong architecture-composition link