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At least 30\% of main sequence stars host planets with sizes of between 1 and4 Earth radii and orbital periods of less than 100 days. We use N-bodysimulations including a model for gas-assisted pebble accretion anddisk--planet tidal interaction to study the formation of super-Earth systems.We show that the integrated pebble mass reservoir creates a bifurcation betweenhot super-Earths or hot-Neptunes ($\lesssim15M_{\oplus}$) and super-massiveplanetary cores potentially able to become gas giant planets($\gtrsim15M_{\oplus}$). Simulations with moderate pebble fluxes grow multiplesuper-Earth-mass planets that migrate inwards and pile up at the inner edge ofthe disk forming long resonant chains. We follow the long-term dynamicalevolution of these systems and use the period ratio distribution of observedplanet-pairs to constrain our model. Up to $\sim$95\% of resonant chains becomedynamically unstable after the gas disk dispersal, leading to a phase of latecollisions that breaks the original resonant configurations. Our simulationsnaturally match observations when they produce a dominant fraction($\gtrsim95\%$) of unstable systems with a sprinkling ($\lesssim5\%$) of stableresonant chains (the Trappist-1 system represents one such example). Ourresults demonstrate that super-Earth systems are inherently multiple (${\rmN\geq2}$) and that the observed excess of single-planet transits is aconsequence of the mutual inclinations excited by the planet--planetinstability. In simulations in which planetary seeds are initially distributedin the inner and outer disk, close-in super-Earths (abridged).

Formation of planetary systems by pebble accretion and migration: Hot super-Earth systems from breaking compact resonant chains