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The EMCCD is a CCD type that delivers fast readout and negligible detectornoise, making it an ideal detector for high frame rate applications. Because ofthe very low detector noise, this detector can potentially count singlephotons. Considering that an EMCCD has a limited dynamical range and negligibledetector noise, one would typically apply an EMCCD in such a way that multipleimages of the same object are available, for instance, in so called luckyimaging. The problem of counting photons can then conveniently be viewed asstatistical inference of flux or photon rates, based on a stack of images. Asimple probabilistic model for the output of an EMCCD is developed. Based onthis model and the prior knowledge that photons are Poisson distributed, wederive two methods for estimating the most probable flux per pixel, one basedon thresholding, and another based on full Bayesian inference. We find that itis indeed possible to derive such expressions, and tests of these methods showthat estimating fluxes with only shot noise is possible, up to fluxes of aboutone photon per pixel per readout.

Bayesian photon counting with electron-multiplying charge coupled devices (EMCCDs)