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Hydrogenation of levulinic acid (LA) to γ-valerolactone (GVL) was studied by using mono- and bidentate p-cymene ruthenium(ii) N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) complexes as catalyst precursors. In water, all complexes were found to be reduced in situ to form ruthenium nanoparticles (RuNPs) with a high hydrogenation activity. In organic solvents, complexes with monodentate NHC ligands also formed nanoparticles, while complexes with bidentate ligands gave rise to stable homogeneous catalysts with moderate hydrogenation activities.

Selective hydrogenation of levulinic acid to γ-valerolactone using in situ generated ruthenium nanoparticles derived from Ru–NHC complexes