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Nano titanium dioxide (nTiO 2 ) is the most abundantly released engineered nanomaterial (ENM) in aquatic environments. Therefore, it is prudent to assess its fate and its effects on lower trophic-level organisms in the aquatic food chain. A predator-and-prey-based laboratory microcosm was established using  Paramecium caudatum  and  Escherichia coli  to evaluate the effects of nTiO 2 . The surface interaction of nTiO 2  with  E. coli  significantly increased after the addition of  Paramecium  into the microcosm. This interaction favoured the hetero-agglomeration and co-sedimentation of nTiO 2 . The extent of nTiO 2  agglomeration under experimental conditions was as follows: combined  E. coli  and  Paramecium  >  Paramecium  only >  E. coli  only > without  E. coli  or  Paramecium.  An increase in nTiO 2  internalisation in  Paramecium  cells was also observed in the presence or absence of  E. coli  cells. These interactions and nTiO 2  internalisation in  Paramecium  cells induced statistically significant (p < 0.05) effects on growth and the bacterial ingestion rate at 24 h. These findings provide new insights into the fate of nTiO 2  in the presence of bacterial-ciliate interactions in the aquatic environment.

Assessment of agglomeration, co-sedimentation and trophic transfer of titanium dioxide nanoparticles in a laboratory-scale predator-prey model system