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The significance of lymphatic system has gathered great attention for immunotechnology related to cancer metastasis and immunotherapy. To develop innovative immunodiagnostics and immunotherapy in  in vivo  environments, it is very important to understand excretion pathways and clearance of injected cargoes. Herein, we employed Tm 3+ -doped upconverting nanoparticles (UCNPs) with versatile advantages suitable for long-term non-invasive  in vivo  optical imaging and tracking. Transport and retention of the UCNPs in the lymphatic system were evaluated with high-quality NIR-to-NIR upconversion luminescence (UCL) imaging. We obtained their kinetic luminescence profiles for the injection site and sentinel lymph node (SLN) and observed luminescence signals for one month; we also examined UCL images in SLN tissues, organs, and faeces at each time point. We speculate that the injected UCNPs in a footpad of a small mouse are transported rapidly from the lymphatic system to the blood system and then eventually result in an efficient excretion by the hepatobiliary route. These results will support development of novel techniques for SLN biopsy as well as immunotechnology.

Clear-cut observation of clearance of sustainable upconverting nanoparticles from lymphatic system of small living mice