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The Chinese white wax scale insect,  Ericerus pela , represents one of the most dramatic examples of sexual dimorphism in any insect species. In this study, we showed that although  E. pela  males display complete metamorphosis similar to holometabolous insects, the species forms the sister group to  Acyrthosiphon pisum  and cluster with hemimetabolous insects. The gene expression profile and Gene Ontology (GO) analyses revealed that the two sexes engaged in distinct developmental programs. In particular, female development appeared to prioritize the expression of genes related to cellular, metabolic, and developmental processes and to anatomical structure formation in nymphs. By contrast, male nymphal development is characterized by the significant down-regulation of genes involved in chitin, the respiratory system, and neurons. The wing and appendage morphogenesis, anatomical and tissue structure morphogenesis programs activated after male nymphal development. Transcription factors (that convey juvenile hormone or ecdysone signals, and Hox genes) and DNA methyltransferase were also differentially expressed between females and males. These results may indicate the roles that these differentially expressed genes play in regulating sexual dimorphism through orchestrating complex genetic programs. This differential expression was particularly prominent for processes linked to female development and wing development in males.

scientific reports

Transcriptome Analysis of Sexually Dimorphic Chinese White Wax Scale Insects Reveals Key Differences in Developmental Programs and Transcription Factor Expression