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Genetically engineered crops expressing  Bacillus thuringiensis  ( Bt ) Cry toxins have transformed insect management in maize and cotton, reducing insecticide use and associated off-target effects. To mitigate the risk that pests evolve resistance to  Bt  crops, the US Environmental Protection Agency requires resistance management measures. The approved resistance management plan for  Bt  maize in cotton production regions requires a structured refuge of non- Bt  maize equal to 20% of the maize planted; that for  Bt  cotton relies on the presence of an unstructured natural refuge comprising both non- Bt  crop and non-crop hosts. We examined how abundance of  Bt  crops (cotton and maize) and an important non- Bt  crop (soybean) component of the natural refuge affect resistance to  Bt  Cry1Ac toxin in local populations of  Helicoverpa zea , an important lepidopteran pest impacted by  Bt  cotton and maize. We show refuge effectiveness is responsive to local abundances of maize and cotton and non- Bt  soybean, and maize, in its role as a source of  H. zea  infesting cotton and non- Bt  hosts, influences refuge effectiveness. These findings have important implications for commercial and regulatory decisions regarding deployment of  Bt  toxins targeting  H. zea  in maize, cotton, and other crops and for assumptions regarding efficacy of natural refuges.

Effectiveness of the natural resistance management refuge for Bt-cotton is dominated by local abundance of soybean and maize