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The mesoderm is considered the youngest of the three germ layers. Although its morphogenesis has been studied in some metazoans, the molecular components underlying this process remain obscure for numerous phyla including the highly diverse Mollusca. Here, expression of  Hairy and enhancer of split  ( HES ),  Mox , and  myosin heavy chain  ( MHC ) was investigated in  Acanthochitona fascicularis , a representative of Polyplacophora with putative ancestral molluscan features. While  AfaMHC  is expressed throughout myogenesis,  AfaMox1  is only expressed during early stages of mesodermal band formation and in the ventrolateral muscle, an autapomorphy of the polyplacophoran trochophore. Comparing our findings to previously published data across Metazoa reveals  Mox  expression in the mesoderm in numerous bilaterians including gastropods, polychaetes, and brachiopods. It is also involved in myogenesis in molluscs, annelids, tunicates, and craniates, suggesting a dual role of  Mox  in mesoderm and muscle formation in the last common bilaterian ancestor.  AfaHESC2  is expressed in the ectoderm of the polyplacophoran gastrula and later in the mesodermal bands and in putative neural tissue, whereas  AfaHESC7  is expressed in the trochoblasts of the gastrula and during foregut formation. This confirms the high developmental variability of HES gene expression and demonstrates that  Mox  and  HES  genes are pleiotropic.

HES and Mox genes are expressed during early mesoderm formation in a mollusk with putative ancestral features