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Rapidly increasing urbanisation is one of the most significant anthropogenic environmental changes which can affect demographic traits of animal populations, for example resulting in reduced reproductive success. The food limitation hypothesis suggests that the shortage of high-quality nestling food in cities is a major factor responsible for the reduced reproductive performance in insectivorous birds. To study this explanation, we collected data on the parental provisioning behaviour of urban and forest great tits ( Parus major ) in three years that varied both in caterpillar availability (the main food of great tit nestlings) and in reproductive success of the birds. In all years, urban parents provisioned caterpillars in a smaller proportion to their nestlings, but the total amount of food per nestling (estimated by the volumes of all prey items) did not differ between habitats. In the two years with much lower reproductive success in urban than forest habitats, urban parents had higher provisioning rates, but provided more non-arthropod food and brought smaller prey items than forest parents. In the year with reduced habitat difference in reproductive success, urban parents were able to compensate for the scarcity of caterpillars by provisioning other arthropods rather than non-arthropod food, and by delivering larger preys than in the other years. Specifically, in this latter year, caterpillars provisioned by urban pairs were cc. twice as large as in the other two years, and were similar in size to caterpillars provisioned in the forest broods. These results show that although urban great tit parents can provide the same quantity of food per nestling as forest parents by reducing their brood size and increasing the per capita feeding rates for nestlings, they cannot compensate fully for the scarcity of high-quality preys (caterpillars) in poor years. In some years, however, favourable conditions for urban caterpillar development can greatly reduce food limitation in cities, allowing urban birds to achieve higher reproductive success. We suggest that urban green areas designed and managed in a way to facilitate conditions for phytophagous arthropods could improve habitat quality for urban birds.

Great tits feed their nestlings with more but smaller prey items and fewer caterpillars in cities than in forests